Chemistry Notes For AEO

NTS  Chemistry Notes for AEO TEST
1.Atoms are the bulding blocks of matter.Atoms are combined to form a molecules.
2.Covlant compounds mostly exist in the form of molecules.
3.Atoms and molecules can either gain or loss electorns , forming charged particles called ions.
4.Metels tenend to loose electrons ,becoming positively charge ions.
5.AMU is Atomic mass unit
6.The atomic mass of an element is determined with reference to the mass of carbon as a standard element and is expressed in amu.
7.The fractional atomic mass can be calculated from the relative abundance of isotopes.
8.The separation and indentification of isotopes can be carried out by mass spectrograph.
9.The compostion of substance is given by its chemical formula.A molecular substance can be presented by its empirical or a molecular formula.The empirical and molecular formula are related through a simple integers.
10.Combustion analysis is one of the techniques to determine the empirical formula and then the molecular formula of a substance bye knowing its molar mass.
11.A mole of any substance is the Avogadro’s number of atoms or molecules or formula units of that substance.
12.The study of quantitative relationship between the reactants and the products in a balanced chemical equation is known as stoichiometry.
13.The theoretical yield of a reaction is the quantity of the product calculated with the help of a balance chemical equation.
14.The actual yield of a reaction is always less than the theritical yield.
15.The efficiency of chemical reaction can be checked by calculating its percentage yield.
AEO Chemistry Notes,,SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
16.The behavior of gas is described through four veriables ..Presure ,volume,temperature and its number of mole.
17.The relationship between gas variables are known as the simple gas laws.
18.Boyle’s law relates pressure of a gas with its volume.In it the pressure and volume are variables while the temperature and quantity of gas remains constant.The volume of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to pressure applies  V =k/P
19.Charles law relates volume with temperature,was given French scientist in 1787.According of this law The volume of  given mass of a  gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature when pressure is kept constant. V=k/t 
20.Avogadro’s law is concerned with volume and amount of gas.According of this law,equal volums of all the ideal gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
21.The important concept of absolute zero of temperature originates from the simple gas laws.
22.By combination three law’s ( Boyler,Charles,Avogadro),a more general equation about the behavior of gis is obtained..i.e PV=nRT.
23. PV=nRT equation can be solved for any one of the variable when values for others are known.
24. PV=nRT equation can be modified for the determination of molar maseese and the density of the gas.
25.Dalton’s Law of partial pressures can be used to calculate the partial pressure of gases.
26.The process of diffusion and effusion are best understood by Graham’s law of diffusion.
27.Kinetic molecular theory of gases provides a theorical basis for various gas laws.
28.With the help of Kinetic molecular theory of gases a relationship is established between average molecular kinetic energy and kelvin temperature.
29.The diffusion and effusion of gases can be related to their molar masses through the kinetic molecular gases of theory.
30.The real gas show ideal behavior underspecific conditions.They become non-ideal at high and low pressure.The non-ideal behavior results chiefly form intermolar attraction and finite volume accupied by gas molecules.
31.To calculate the pressure of volume of a real gas under the non real conditions ,alternative kinetic equation (Van dar Waal’s Equation) has been developed.
32.The plasma,a forth state of matter,consist of neutral particles,positive ions and negative electrons,99% of known universe is in the plasma state.Plasma was identified by Willian Cookers in 1879.
33.Density of ideal gas PV=m/M(RT)
Chapter No.4 Liquids and Solid FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
34.The intermolecular attractive forces in the gases are negligible.
35.There are four types of intermolecular forces i.e dipole-dipole forces,London dispersion forces,hydrogen bonding and Ion-dipole force.They relative strength of dipole-dipole and dispersion forces depend upon the polarity , polarisability,size and shape of the molecule.
36.Hydrogen bonding occurs in compounds containing O-H,N-H,H-F bounds.
37.The vapor pressure of a liquid measures the tendency of a liquid to evaporate.It is the pressure exerted by the vapours on the surface of a liquid when the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of condensation.A liquid boils when its vapour pressure equal to the rate of external pressure.
38.Many Crystallian solids melt to give a turbid liquid before melting to give a clear liquid.These turbid liquids posses some degree of order and are called liquid crystal.Liquid crystal have the fluidity of liquids and the optical properties of solids.
39.In crystalline solids the particles are arranged in a regular and repeating manner.
40.The essential structural feautures of a crystalline solid can be represented by its unit cell.
41.The three dimensional array of points representing atoms,ions or molecules is called crystal lattice.
42.The points in the crystal lattice represent positions in the structure where they have identical enviornments.
43.The simplest unit cell is a cubic unit cell.There are seven crystal systems over all.(1)Cubic system (2)Tetragonal system(3)Orthorhombic or Rhombic system (4)Monoclinic system (5)Hexagonal system
(6)Rhombohedral or trigonal system (7)Triclinice system
44.Ionic solids are hard and brittle and have high melting points.
45.Covalent solids consist of atoms held together by covalent bonds and these bonds extend throughout the solid.They are hard and have high melting points
46.Metallic solids consist of metal cations immersed in a sea of electrons and give wide range of properties.
47.Molecular solids consist of atoms or molecules held together by intermolecular forces.
48.Dipole-Dipole Forces : The positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end of the other molecule and these electronics forces of attraction are called diplole-dipole forces.

Chapter No.4 Liquids and Solid FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
49.In a molecule of HCL ,there is a covalent bond between H and CL which is due to the mutual sharing of electorns.
50.A mixture of substance containing polar and non polar molecules.The positive end of the polar molecule attracts the mobile electrons of the nearby non-polar molecule.In this way polarity in induced.
51.Instantaneous Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces or London Dispersion Forces : It is weaker than dipole-dipole interactions.The strength of these forces depend upon the size of electronic cloud of atom or molecule.When size of the atom or molecule is large then the dispersion becomes easy and forces become more prominent.
52.Hyderogen bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between a highly electronegative atom and partial positively charged hydrogen atom.
53.Soaps and detergents perform the cleansing action because the polar part of their molecules are water soluble due to hydrogen-bonding and non-polar parts remain outside water,because they are alkly or benzyl portions and are insoluble in water.
53.The amount of heat required to vapourize one mole of liquid at its boiling point is called its molar heat of vapourization.Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera District Bhakkar.
54.If physical or a chemical change take place at a constant pressure,then the heat change during this process is called enthalpy change.
55.Some of the crystals show variation in physical properties depending upon the direction.such properties are called anisotropic.
56.The repetition of faces,angles or edges when a crystal is rotated by degree of 360 along its axis is called symmetry.
57.Isomorphism is the phenomenon in which two different substances exist in the same crystalline form.
58. A compound exists in more than one crystalline forms is called polymorphic.
59.The existence of an element in more than one crystalline forms is known as allotrophy.
60.In transition temperature at which two crystalline forms of the same substance can coexist in equilibrium with each other.
61.A crystal lattice is an array of points representing atoms,ions or molecules of a crystal arranged at different sites in three dimensional space.
62.Crystal solids in which the partials forming the crystal are positively and negatively charged ions are called ionic solids.
AEO Chemistry Notes Chapter 5 ( Atomic Structure) FSC Part-1 !!!
63.Itom is made up of extremely small particles.
64.Cathod rays and positive rays were discovered during discharge tube experiments.The properties of cathode rays showed them to be negatively charged particles called electrons,where as positive rays were found to contain positively charged particles called protons.
65.Neutron was discovered through artificial radioactivity.
66.Electorns,protrons and neutrons are regarded as the fundamental particles of an atom.
67.Ratheford discovered the nucleus and successfully explained the presence of moving electrons around the nucles.Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera District Bhakkar
68.in 1905,Planck put forward his famous Planck’s quantum theory.
69.Neil Bohar explain the structure of hydrogen atom by using Planck’s quantum  theory.He also calculated the radius and energy of electrons in the nth shell of hydrogen atom.
70.Neil Bohar atom model successfully explain the origin of line spectrum and the lines present in the spectrum of hydrogen atom in the visible and invisible regions.
71.X-rays are produced when rapidly working /moving electrons collide with heavy metal anode in the discharge tube.
72.Moseley discovered a simple relationship between the frequency of x-rays and the atomic number of the target element.
73.De-Brogile discovered wave particle duality of material particles.According to him all material particles in motion have a dual charcter.Davissan and Germer experimentally verified the waves concept of electron.
Chapter No.6 CHEMICAL BONDING FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
74.Atoms combine together due to their inherent tendency to attain the nearest noble gas electronic configuration and the formation of a chemical bond always result in a decrease of energy.
75.The size of an atom is expressed in terms of atomic radius,ionic radus , covalent radius and van der Waals radius.
76.It is necessary to understand thermodynamic properties of elements.The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron form an atom in gaseous state called ionization energy.
77.The Ionic bonds are formed by transfer of electron form one atom to another.
78.Covalent bonds are formed by mutual sharing of electrons between combining atoms.
79.After the formation of a coordinate covalent bond,there is no distinction between a covalent bond and a coordinate covalent bond.
80.A polar covalent bond is formed when atoms having different electronegativity values mutually share their electrons.Due to polarity , bonds become shorter and stronger and dipole moment may develop.
81.According to valence bond theory,the atomic orbitals overlap to form bonds but the individual character of the atomic orbitals are retained.The greater overlap The stronger will be the bond formed.
Chapter No.6 CHEMICAL BONDING FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
82.The VSEPR theory gives information about the general shapes and bond angles of molecules.It is based upon repulsion between bonding and lone pairs of electrons.which tend to remain at maximum distance apart so that interaction between them is minimum.The concept provides an alternative way to explain various geometrical shapes of molecules.
83.The geometrical shapes and bond angles are better explained by different hybridization schemes,where different atomic orbitals are mixed to form hybridorbitals.
84.According to molecular orbital theory,atomic orbitals overlap to form molecular orbitals.
85.The bond energy in defined as the average amount of energy required to break all bonds of particular type in one mole of the substance.It is measure of the strength of the bond.Stronger the dipole of a bond,greater will be the bond energy.
86.The distance between the nuclei of tow atoms forming a covalent bond is called bond length.In general ,It is the sum of covalent radii of the combined atoms.
87.Properties of substances are charachterized by the type of bonds present in them.
88.The diplole moment may be defined as the product of electric charge(q)and the Distance(r) between the two oppositely charged centers.It is a vector quantity as it has magnitude and direction.It plays a major role,in determinating the % age ionic character of covalent bond and the shapes of molecules.It has magnitude and direction.
TOPIC ATMOSPHERE  for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
89.About 99% of atmospheric mass lies within 30 kilometers of the surface and 75% lies within lowest 11 Kilometers.
90.Niterogen is by volume is 78.09 in atmosphere.
91.Oxygen is by volume is 20.94 in atmosphere.
92.Argon is by volume is 00 .93 in atmosphere.
93.Carbon dioxide is by volume is 00.03 in atmosphere.
94.Atmoshere consists of four layer(Spheres)1.Troposhere2.Stratosphere3.Mesosphere4.Thermosphere.
95.In Troposphere , Temperature decreases from 17 C to -58 C extending upto 12 K.M.
96. In Stratosphere, Temperature increases from -58 to 2 C extending from 12 K.M to 50 K.M
97.In Mesosphere , Temperature decreases from 2 C to -93 C extending form 50 K.M to 85 K.M
98.In Thermosphere, increase -93 C extending from 85 K.M to 120 K.M.
99.In Troposphere are nitrogen and oxygen gases.All air crafts fly in this region.
100.Major air Pollutants are classified as primary and secondary pollutants.
101. primary pollutants are the waste or exhaust products driven out because of combination of fossil fules and organic matter.These are oxides of sulpher,carbon,niterogen,nitric,hydrocarbon,ammonia oxide and compound of fluorine.
102.Secondary Pollutants are produced are produced by various reactions of primary pollutants.These are sulphuric acid,Carbonic acid,nitric acid,hydrofluoric acid,ozone and peroxy acetryl nitrature(PAN)
Chapter No.7 THERMOCHEMISTRY FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
103.The study of heat changes accompanying a chemical reaction is known as thermochemistry.
104.The subject matter of thermochemistry is based on the first law of thermodynamics.
105.A process which place on its own without and outside assistance and moves from a non-equilibrium state towards an equilibrium state is termed as spontaneous process or natural process.
106.Spontaneous is unidirectional,irreversible and a real process.
107.Neutralization of a strong acid with a strong base is a spontaneous acid base reaction.
108.Burning of Coal and Hydrogen in air are example of Spontaneous.
109.Non-Spontaneous process is the reserve of the spontaneous process.It does not take place on its own and does not occur in nature.
110.The term system is used for anything (materials) under test in the laboratory or under consideration in the classroom for the purpose of argument.
111.A state function is a macroscopic property of a system which has some definite values for initial and final states,and which is independent of the path adopted to bring about a change.
112.Pressure,Volume,internal energy and enthalpy are state function.
113.Heat is quantity of energy that flows across the boundary of a system during a change in its state due to the difference in temperature between the system and the surroundings.
114.The first law of thermodynamics also called the law of conversion of energy , states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed ,but can be changed from one to another.
TOPIC CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM CHAP#8 FSC PART 1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes!!!
115.The reversible chemical reactions can achieve a state in which the forward and the reverse process are occurring at same rate.it is chemical equilibrium.
116.The concentrations of reactants and products are called equilibrium concentrations and the mixture is called equilibrium mixture.
117.Law of mass action provides the relationship among the concentrations of reactants and products of a system at equilibrium stage.
118.The ratio of concentrations of the products to the concentration of reactants is called equilibrium constant.
119.The equilibrium constants are expressed as Kc,Kp,Kn and Kx.
120.The effect of change of concentration,temperature,pressure or catalyst in a reaction can be studies with the help of Le-Chatelier’s principle.
121.Increasing concentrations of reactants or decreasing concentrations of products or heating of the endothermic reactions shifts the reaction to forward direction.
122.The change of temperature disturbs the equilibrium position and equilibrium constant of reaction.
123.A catalyst decrease the time to reach the equilibrium and does not alter the equilibrium position and equilibrium constant under the given conditions.
124.Water is very weak electrolyte and ionizes to a slight degree.The extent of this a auto ionization is expressed by ionic product of water called Kw,having a value 10 minus 14 at 25 Centigrade.The addition of an acid or base change the H exponent Plus and OH exponent negative ,but the ionic product remains the same at 25 Centigrade.
TOPIC CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM CHAP#8 FSC PART 1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes!!!
125.The concentration of H Plus is expressed in terms of pH and that of OH in terms of pOH.Neutral water has a pH=7 and pOH = 7 the value of pKw is 14 at 25 Centigrade.
126.According to Lowery-Bronsted concept of an acid and a base the conjugate base of strong acid is always weak.
127.Lowery-Bronsted concept: pKa and pKb are the parameters to measure the strengths of acids and bases.Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera Bhakkar
128.Those solutions which resist the change of pH are called buffer solutions.
129.Buffer solutions of pH below 7 are prepared by mixing a weak acid and salt of it.
130.in Buffer solutions with strong base while basic buffers can be prepared by combining a weak base and a salt with a strong acid. Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera Bhakkar
131.Hendersen’s equation guides us quantitatively to have the buffer solutions of good buffer capacity and to select the pair of compounds for this purpose. Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera Bhakkar
132.The solubility of sparingly soluble substance are calculated form the solubility product data.This data provides us information about the selective  precipitation and fractional precipitation.
133.Communication effect operates best in buffer solutions,and purification of certain substance.It is one of the best application of Le-Chaterlier’s principle.
134.Work is measured in Jouls in SI Units. Work W=F*S
TOPIC “SOLUTIONS” CHEMISTARY  CHAP#9 FSC PART 1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes!!!
135.Every sample of matter with uniform properties and a fixed composition is called a phase.
136.A solution ,on average, is a homogeneous mixture of two or more kinds of different molecular or ionic substances.
137.Percentage weight/weight : It is weight of a solute dissolved per 100 parts by weight of solution.
138.Molarity : Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved per dm cube of the solution.
139.Molarity= Mass of solute / Mol. Mass of solute * 1/Volume of solution dm cube
140.or Molarity = Number of moles of volume/Volume of solution dm cube
141.The mole fraction of any component in a mixture is the ratio of the number of moles ot it to the total number of moles of all the components present.
142.The substance ,which is present in a large quantity is called a solvent and the other in small quantity is called solute.
143.Solutions containing relatively lower concentration of solutes are called dilute solutions.
144.Solutions containing relatively high concentration of solutes are called concentrated solutions.
145.Solubility is the concentration of a solute in a solution,when the solution isat equilibrium with the solute at a particular temperature.
GROUP CREATOR : Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera District BhakkarNTS  Chemistry Notes for AEO TEST
1.Atoms are the bulding blocks of matter.Atoms are combined to form a molecules.
2.Covlant compounds mostly exist in the form of molecules.
3.Atoms and molecules can either gain or loss electorns , forming charged particles called ions.
4.Metels tenend to loose electrons ,becoming positively charge ions.
5.AMU is Atomic mass unit
6.The atomic mass of an element is determined with reference to the mass of carbon as a standard element and is expressed in amu.
7.The fractional atomic mass can be calculated from the relative abundance of isotopes.
8.The separation and indentification of isotopes can be carried out by mass spectrograph.
9.The compostion of substance is given by its chemical formula.A molecular substance can be presented by its empirical or a molecular formula.The empirical and molecular formula are related through a simple integers.
10.Combustion analysis is one of the techniques to determine the empirical formula and then the molecular formula of a substance bye knowing its molar mass.
11.A mole of any substance is the Avogadro’s number of atoms or molecules or formula units of that substance.
12.The study of quantitative relationship between the reactants and the products in a balanced chemical equation is known as stoichiometry.
13.The theoretical yield of a reaction is the quantity of the product calculated with the help of a balance chemical equation.
14.The actual yield of a reaction is always less than the theritical yield.
15.The efficiency of chemical reaction can be checked by calculating its percentage yield.
AEO Chemistry Notes,,SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
16.The behavior of gas is described through four veriables ..Presure ,volume,temperature and its number of mole.
17.The relationship between gas variables are known as the simple gas laws.
18.Boyle’s law relates pressure of a gas with its volume.In it the pressure and volume are variables while the temperature and quantity of gas remains constant.The volume of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to pressure applies  V =k/P
19.Charles law relates volume with temperature,was given French scientist in 1787.According of this law The volume of  given mass of a  gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature when pressure is kept constant. V=k/t 
20.Avogadro’s law is concerned with volume and amount of gas.According of this law,equal volums of all the ideal gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
21.The important concept of absolute zero of temperature originates from the simple gas laws.
22.By combination three law’s ( Boyler,Charles,Avogadro),a more general equation about the behavior of gis is obtained..i.e PV=nRT.
23. PV=nRT equation can be solved for any one of the variable when values for others are known.
24. PV=nRT equation can be modified for the determination of molar maseese and the density of the gas.
25.Dalton’s Law of partial pressures can be used to calculate the partial pressure of gases.
26.The process of diffusion and effusion are best understood by Graham’s law of diffusion.
27.Kinetic molecular theory of gases provides a theorical basis for various gas laws.
28.With the help of Kinetic molecular theory of gases a relationship is established between average molecular kinetic energy and kelvin temperature.
29.The diffusion and effusion of gases can be related to their molar masses through the kinetic molecular gases of theory.
30.The real gas show ideal behavior underspecific conditions.They become non-ideal at high and low pressure.The non-ideal behavior results chiefly form intermolar attraction and finite volume accupied by gas molecules.
31.To calculate the pressure of volume of a real gas under the non real conditions ,alternative kinetic equation (Van dar Waal’s Equation) has been developed.
32.The plasma,a forth state of matter,consist of neutral particles,positive ions and negative electrons,99% of known universe is in the plasma state.Plasma was identified by Willian Cookers in 1879.
33.Density of ideal gas PV=m/M(RT)
Chapter No.4 Liquids and Solid FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
34.The intermolecular attractive forces in the gases are negligible.
35.There are four types of intermolecular forces i.e dipole-dipole forces,London dispersion forces,hydrogen bonding and Ion-dipole force.They relative strength of dipole-dipole and dispersion forces depend upon the polarity , polarisability,size and shape of the molecule.
36.Hydrogen bonding occurs in compounds containing O-H,N-H,H-F bounds.
37.The vapor pressure of a liquid measures the tendency of a liquid to evaporate.It is the pressure exerted by the vapours on the surface of a liquid when the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of condensation.A liquid boils when its vapour pressure equal to the rate of external pressure.
38.Many Crystallian solids melt to give a turbid liquid before melting to give a clear liquid.These turbid liquids posses some degree of order and are called liquid crystal.Liquid crystal have the fluidity of liquids and the optical properties of solids.
39.In crystalline solids the particles are arranged in a regular and repeating manner.
40.The essential structural feautures of a crystalline solid can be represented by its unit cell.
41.The three dimensional array of points representing atoms,ions or molecules is called crystal lattice.
42.The points in the crystal lattice represent positions in the structure where they have identical enviornments.
43.The simplest unit cell is a cubic unit cell.There are seven crystal systems over all.(1)Cubic system (2)Tetragonal system(3)Orthorhombic or Rhombic system (4)Monoclinic system (5)Hexagonal system
(6)Rhombohedral or trigonal system (7)Triclinice system
44.Ionic solids are hard and brittle and have high melting points.
45.Covalent solids consist of atoms held together by covalent bonds and these bonds extend throughout the solid.They are hard and have high melting points
46.Metallic solids consist of metal cations immersed in a sea of electrons and give wide range of properties.
47.Molecular solids consist of atoms or molecules held together by intermolecular forces.
48.Dipole-Dipole Forces : The positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end of the other molecule and these electronics forces of attraction are called diplole-dipole forces.

Chapter No.4 Liquids and Solid FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
49.In a molecule of HCL ,there is a covalent bond between H and CL which is due to the mutual sharing of electorns.
50.A mixture of substance containing polar and non polar molecules.The positive end of the polar molecule attracts the mobile electrons of the nearby non-polar molecule.In this way polarity in induced.
51.Instantaneous Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces or London Dispersion Forces : It is weaker than dipole-dipole interactions.The strength of these forces depend upon the size of electronic cloud of atom or molecule.When size of the atom or molecule is large then the dispersion becomes easy and forces become more prominent.
52.Hyderogen bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between a highly electronegative atom and partial positively charged hydrogen atom.
53.Soaps and detergents perform the cleansing action because the polar part of their molecules are water soluble due to hydrogen-bonding and non-polar parts remain outside water,because they are alkly or benzyl portions and are insoluble in water.
53.The amount of heat required to vapourize one mole of liquid at its boiling point is called its molar heat of vapourization.Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera District Bhakkar.
54.If physical or a chemical change take place at a constant pressure,then the heat change during this process is called enthalpy change.
55.Some of the crystals show variation in physical properties depending upon the direction.such properties are called anisotropic.
56.The repetition of faces,angles or edges when a crystal is rotated by degree of 360 along its axis is called symmetry.
57.Isomorphism is the phenomenon in which two different substances exist in the same crystalline form.
58. A compound exists in more than one crystalline forms is called polymorphic.
59.The existence of an element in more than one crystalline forms is known as allotrophy.
60.In transition temperature at which two crystalline forms of the same substance can coexist in equilibrium with each other.
61.A crystal lattice is an array of points representing atoms,ions or molecules of a crystal arranged at different sites in three dimensional space.
62.Crystal solids in which the partials forming the crystal are positively and negatively charged ions are called ionic solids.
AEO Chemistry Notes Chapter 5 ( Atomic Structure) FSC Part-1 !!!
63.Itom is made up of extremely small particles.
64.Cathod rays and positive rays were discovered during discharge tube experiments.The properties of cathode rays showed them to be negatively charged particles called electrons,where as positive rays were found to contain positively charged particles called protons.
65.Neutron was discovered through artificial radioactivity.
66.Electorns,protrons and neutrons are regarded as the fundamental particles of an atom.
67.Ratheford discovered the nucleus and successfully explained the presence of moving electrons around the nucles.Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera District Bhakkar
68.in 1905,Planck put forward his famous Planck’s quantum theory.
69.Neil Bohar explain the structure of hydrogen atom by using Planck’s quantum  theory.He also calculated the radius and energy of electrons in the nth shell of hydrogen atom.
70.Neil Bohar atom model successfully explain the origin of line spectrum and the lines present in the spectrum of hydrogen atom in the visible and invisible regions.
71.X-rays are produced when rapidly working /moving electrons collide with heavy metal anode in the discharge tube.
72.Moseley discovered a simple relationship between the frequency of x-rays and the atomic number of the target element.
73.De-Brogile discovered wave particle duality of material particles.According to him all material particles in motion have a dual charcter.Davissan and Germer experimentally verified the waves concept of electron.
Chapter No.6 CHEMICAL BONDING FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
74.Atoms combine together due to their inherent tendency to attain the nearest noble gas electronic configuration and the formation of a chemical bond always result in a decrease of energy.
75.The size of an atom is expressed in terms of atomic radius,ionic radus , covalent radius and van der Waals radius.
76.It is necessary to understand thermodynamic properties of elements.The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron form an atom in gaseous state called ionization energy.
77.The Ionic bonds are formed by transfer of electron form one atom to another.
78.Covalent bonds are formed by mutual sharing of electrons between combining atoms.
79.After the formation of a coordinate covalent bond,there is no distinction between a covalent bond and a coordinate covalent bond.
80.A polar covalent bond is formed when atoms having different electronegativity values mutually share their electrons.Due to polarity , bonds become shorter and stronger and dipole moment may develop.
81.According to valence bond theory,the atomic orbitals overlap to form bonds but the individual character of the atomic orbitals are retained.The greater overlap The stronger will be the bond formed.
Chapter No.6 CHEMICAL BONDING FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
82.The VSEPR theory gives information about the general shapes and bond angles of molecules.It is based upon repulsion between bonding and lone pairs of electrons.which tend to remain at maximum distance apart so that interaction between them is minimum.The concept provides an alternative way to explain various geometrical shapes of molecules.
83.The geometrical shapes and bond angles are better explained by different hybridization schemes,where different atomic orbitals are mixed to form hybridorbitals.
84.According to molecular orbital theory,atomic orbitals overlap to form molecular orbitals.
85.The bond energy in defined as the average amount of energy required to break all bonds of particular type in one mole of the substance.It is measure of the strength of the bond.Stronger the dipole of a bond,greater will be the bond energy.
86.The distance between the nuclei of tow atoms forming a covalent bond is called bond length.In general ,It is the sum of covalent radii of the combined atoms.
87.Properties of substances are charachterized by the type of bonds present in them.
88.The diplole moment may be defined as the product of electric charge(q)and the Distance(r) between the two oppositely charged centers.It is a vector quantity as it has magnitude and direction.It plays a major role,in determinating the % age ionic character of covalent bond and the shapes of molecules.It has magnitude and direction.
TOPIC ATMOSPHERE  for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
89.About 99% of atmospheric mass lies within 30 kilometers of the surface and 75% lies within lowest 11 Kilometers.
90.Niterogen is by volume is 78.09 in atmosphere.
91.Oxygen is by volume is 20.94 in atmosphere.
92.Argon is by volume is 00 .93 in atmosphere.
93.Carbon dioxide is by volume is 00.03 in atmosphere.
94.Atmoshere consists of four layer(Spheres)1.Troposhere2.Stratosphere3.Mesosphere4.Thermosphere.
95.In Troposphere , Temperature decreases from 17 C to -58 C extending upto 12 K.M.
96. In Stratosphere, Temperature increases from -58 to 2 C extending from 12 K.M to 50 K.M
97.In Mesosphere , Temperature decreases from 2 C to -93 C extending form 50 K.M to 85 K.M
98.In Thermosphere, increase -93 C extending from 85 K.M to 120 K.M.
99.In Troposphere are nitrogen and oxygen gases.All air crafts fly in this region.
100.Major air Pollutants are classified as primary and secondary pollutants.
101. primary pollutants are the waste or exhaust products driven out because of combination of fossil fules and organic matter.These are oxides of sulpher,carbon,niterogen,nitric,hydrocarbon,ammonia oxide and compound of fluorine.
102.Secondary Pollutants are produced are produced by various reactions of primary pollutants.These are sulphuric acid,Carbonic acid,nitric acid,hydrofluoric acid,ozone and peroxy acetryl nitrature(PAN)
Chapter No.7 THERMOCHEMISTRY FSC Part-1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes !!!
103.The study of heat changes accompanying a chemical reaction is known as thermochemistry.
104.The subject matter of thermochemistry is based on the first law of thermodynamics.
105.A process which place on its own without and outside assistance and moves from a non-equilibrium state towards an equilibrium state is termed as spontaneous process or natural process.
106.Spontaneous is unidirectional,irreversible and a real process.
107.Neutralization of a strong acid with a strong base is a spontaneous acid base reaction.
108.Burning of Coal and Hydrogen in air are example of Spontaneous.
109.Non-Spontaneous process is the reserve of the spontaneous process.It does not take place on its own and does not occur in nature.
110.The term system is used for anything (materials) under test in the laboratory or under consideration in the classroom for the purpose of argument.
111.A state function is a macroscopic property of a system which has some definite values for initial and final states,and which is independent of the path adopted to bring about a change.
112.Pressure,Volume,internal energy and enthalpy are state function.
113.Heat is quantity of energy that flows across the boundary of a system during a change in its state due to the difference in temperature between the system and the surroundings.
114.The first law of thermodynamics also called the law of conversion of energy , states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed ,but can be changed from one to another.
TOPIC CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM CHAP#8 FSC PART 1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes!!!
115.The reversible chemical reactions can achieve a state in which the forward and the reverse process are occurring at same rate.it is chemical equilibrium.
116.The concentrations of reactants and products are called equilibrium concentrations and the mixture is called equilibrium mixture.
117.Law of mass action provides the relationship among the concentrations of reactants and products of a system at equilibrium stage.
118.The ratio of concentrations of the products to the concentration of reactants is called equilibrium constant.
119.The equilibrium constants are expressed as Kc,Kp,Kn and Kx.
120.The effect of change of concentration,temperature,pressure or catalyst in a reaction can be studies with the help of Le-Chatelier’s principle.
121.Increasing concentrations of reactants or decreasing concentrations of products or heating of the endothermic reactions shifts the reaction to forward direction.
122.The change of temperature disturbs the equilibrium position and equilibrium constant of reaction.
123.A catalyst decrease the time to reach the equilibrium and does not alter the equilibrium position and equilibrium constant under the given conditions.
124.Water is very weak electrolyte and ionizes to a slight degree.The extent of this a auto ionization is expressed by ionic product of water called Kw,having a value 10 minus 14 at 25 Centigrade.The addition of an acid or base change the H exponent Plus and OH exponent negative ,but the ionic product remains the same at 25 Centigrade.
TOPIC CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM CHAP#8 FSC PART 1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes!!!
125.The concentration of H Plus is expressed in terms of pH and that of OH in terms of pOH.Neutral water has a pH=7 and pOH = 7 the value of pKw is 14 at 25 Centigrade.
126.According to Lowery-Bronsted concept of an acid and a base the conjugate base of strong acid is always weak.
127.Lowery-Bronsted concept: pKa and pKb are the parameters to measure the strengths of acids and bases.Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera Bhakkar
128.Those solutions which resist the change of pH are called buffer solutions.
129.Buffer solutions of pH below 7 are prepared by mixing a weak acid and salt of it.
130.in Buffer solutions with strong base while basic buffers can be prepared by combining a weak base and a salt with a strong acid. Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera Bhakkar
131.Hendersen’s equation guides us quantitatively to have the buffer solutions of good buffer capacity and to select the pair of compounds for this purpose. Muhammad Ramzan Chheena Mankera Bhakkar
132.The solubility of sparingly soluble substance are calculated form the solubility product data.This data provides us information about the selective  precipitation and fractional precipitation.
133.Communication effect operates best in buffer solutions,and purification of certain substance.It is one of the best application of Le-Chaterlier’s principle.
134.Work is measured in Jouls in SI Units. Work W=F*S
TOPIC “SOLUTIONS” CHEMISTARY  CHAP#9 FSC PART 1 for AEO and SSE Chemistry Notes!!!
135.Every sample of matter with uniform properties and a fixed composition is called a phase.
136.A solution ,on average, is a homogeneous mixture of two or more kinds of different molecular or ionic substances.
137.Percentage weight/weight : It is weight of a solute dissolved per 100 parts by weight of solution.
138.Molarity : Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved per dm cube of the solution.
139.Molarity= Mass of solute / Mol. Mass of solute * 1/Volume of solution dm cube
140.or Molarity = Number of moles of volume/Volume of solution dm cube
141.The mole fraction of any component in a mixture is the ratio of the number of moles ot it to the total number of moles of all the components present.
142.The substance ,which is present in a large quantity is called a solvent and the other in small quantity is called solute.
143.Solutions containing relatively lower concentration of solutes are called dilute solutions.
144.Solutions containing relatively high concentration of solutes are called concentrated solutions.
145.Solubility is the concentration of a solute in a solution,when the solution isat equilibrium with the solute at a particular temperature.