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Commas And Periods In Commas

Commas and periods are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as periods.

Rule 1. Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series of three or more items.

Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and nephew.

Note: When the last comma in a series comes before and or or (after daughter-in-law in the above example), it is known as the Oxford comma. Most newspapers and magazines drop the Oxford comma in a simple series, apparently feeling it's unnecessary. However, omission of the Oxford comma can sometimes lead to misunderstandings.

Example: We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.

Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear that cheese and crackers represents one dish. In cases like this, clarity demands the Oxford comma.

We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes.

Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford comma. Writers must decide Oxford or no Oxford and not switch back and forth, except when omitting the Oxford comma could cause confusion as in the cheese and crackers example.

Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the order of the adjectives is interchangeable.

Example: He is a strong, healthy man.

We could also say healthy, strong man.

Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.

We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.

Another way to determine if a comma is needed is to mentally put and between the two adjectives. If the result still makes sense, add the comma. In the examples above, a strong and healthy man makes sense, but an expensive and summer resort does not.

Rule 3a. Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using a comma instead of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more technically, a comma splice.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.

There are several simple remedies:

Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.

Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the door.

Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Rule 3b. In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door.

Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both quite short:

Example: I paint and he writes.

Rule 3c. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary.

Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.

But sometimes a comma in this situation is necessary to avoid confusion.

Confusing: I saw that she was busy and prepared to leave.

Clearer with comma: I saw that she was busy, and prepared to leave.

Without a comma, the reader is liable to think that "she" was the one who was prepared to leave.

 

Rule 4a. When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a comma after it.

Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.

Follow the same policy with introductory phrases.

Example: Having finally arrived in town, we went shopping.

However, if the introductory phrase is clear and brief (three or four words), the comma is optional.

Example: When in town we go shopping.

But always add a comma if it would avoid confusion.

Example: Last Sunday, evening classes were canceled. (The comma prevents a misreading.)

When an introductory phrase begins with a preposition, a comma may not be necessary even if the phrase contains more than three or four words.

Example: Into the sparkling crystal ball he gazed.

If such a phrase contains more than one preposition, a comma may be used unless a verb immediately follows the phrase.

Examples:

Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue, the mayor's mansion stands proudly.

Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue is the mayor's mansion.

Rule 4b. A comma is usually unnecessary when the sentence starts with an independent clause followed by a dependent clause.

Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

Rule 5. Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases (see Who, That, Which, Rule 2b).

Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.

Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.

Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home.

Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.

In the preceding examples, note the comma after sister and late. Nonessential words, clauses, and phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by commas. The closing comma is called an appositive comma. Many writers forget to add this important comma. Following are two instances of the need for an appositive comma with one or more nouns.

Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.

Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.

Incorrect: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper were on the table.

Correct: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper, were on the table.

 

Rule 6. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.

Examples:

Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.

If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not essential.

The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.

We do not know which boy is meant without further description; therefore, no commas are used.

This leads to a persistent problem. Look at the following sentence:

Example: My brother Bill is here.

Now, see how adding two commas changes that sentence's meaning:

Example: My brother, Bill, is here.

Careful writers and readers understand that the first sentence means I have more than one brother. The commas in the second sentence mean that Bill is my only brother.

Why? In the first sentence, Bill is essential information: it identifies which of my two (or more) brothers I'm speaking of. This is why no commas enclose Bill.

In the second sentence, Bill is nonessential information—whom else but Bill could I mean?—hence the commas.

Comma misuse is nothing to take lightly. It can lead to a train wreck like this:

Example: Mark Twain's book, Tom Sawyer, is a delight.

Because of the commas, that sentence states that Twain wrote only one book. In fact, he wrote more than two dozen of them.

Rule 7a. Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello, hey, etc.

Examples:

Why, I can't believe this!

No, you can't have a dollar.

Rule 7b. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).

Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.

Rule 8. Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of a person directly addressed.

Examples:

Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?

Yes, old friend, I will.

Good day, Captain.

Rule 9. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, and—what most people forget!—always put one after the year, also.

Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition.

No comma is necessary for just the month and year.

Example: It was in a June 2003 article.

 

Rule 10. Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and remember to put one after the state, also.

Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area.

Rule 11. Traditionally, if a person's name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the last name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered mandatory. However, if a comma does precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must follow the entire name when it appears midsentence.

Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here.

Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.

Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.

Rule 12. Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names.

Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.

Rule 13a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.

Examples:

He said, "I don't care."

"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"

This rule is optional with one-word quotations.

Example: He said "Stop."

Rule 13b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.

Examples:

"I don't care," he said.

"Stop," he said.

Rule 13c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma.

Examples:

Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?

Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.

Rule 13d. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.

Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.

Rule 14. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.

Example: I can go, can't I?

 

Rule 15. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.

Example: That is my money, not yours.

Rule 16a. Use a comma before and after certain introductory words or terms, such as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., and for instance, when they are followed by a series of items.

Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

Rule 16b. A comma should precede the term etc. Many authorities also recommend a comma after etc. when it is placed midsentence.

Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are in the tent.

NOTE

The abbreviation i.e. means "that is"; e.g. means "for example."

ARE YOU READY FOR THE QUIZ?

COMMAS QUIZ 1  COMMAS QUIZ 2

 

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How To Write Answer In English Literature Paper

𝐇𝐨𝐰 𝐭𝐨 𝐖𝐫𝐢𝐭e Answer 𝐢𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡

𝐋𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐏𝐚𝐩𝐞𝐫

First of all when writing any question, we have to talk about the main theme of the question. This is very important. Generally, we do not read the whole question and just start writing whatever comes to our mind. It is due to the shortage of time. We have so many questions to attempt so we cannot afford so much time. At that time you need to draw the complete structure of the question. It is very much important to make an outline of the question. You may have a lot of content about the asked question but it is necessary to figure out the most important content that you are supposed to write. Divide your answer into three main parts. 

1. Introduction

2. Main Body

3. Conclusion

Introduction and conclusion in any question are very important. Because if we do not introduce any question or do not conclude it then it will be an incomplete format which is the bad impression for the examiner. You must work on alpha and omega of question. 

We know that every word has a different meaning. Let’s discuss various words that would be asked in an exam and what their meaning is.

𝟭. 𝗗𝗲𝗳𝗶𝗻𝗲

When you are writing about definition then they would not expect a stupid answer from you. They actually ask you to define the question that has a proper definition. You need to state a proper definition and you precise about it. It will be authentic and clear.

𝟮. 𝗗𝗲𝘀𝗰𝗿𝗶𝗯𝗲

Describe means you have to give complete information about anything e.g. How and why some things happen. You have to give a complete description in descriptive format.

𝟯. 𝗘𝘅𝗽𝗹𝗮𝗶𝗻

Explain means you have to clarify topic detail as how and why. You have to write the complex procedure, sequences of events that would be easily understood. Things should be mentioned in chronological order for this sort of question. This is something that will explain completely and it comes from one step to another. You did not miss your knowledge.

𝟰. 𝗘𝗹𝗮𝗯𝗼𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗲

Elaborate means a statement that you have to expand it. You have to touch every area of it. You have to draw 360o angle then you are touching every angle. For example, if you are talking about social, economic and political perspective of Victorian age then it is necessary to elaborate every aspect related to it such as Industrial Revolution, Reform acts etc.

𝟱. 𝗗𝗲𝗺𝗼𝗻𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗲

Demonstrate means show how with an example to illustrate. It means give a complete demonstration of any things. Furthermore, you have to explain it with help of example.

𝟲. 𝗖𝗿𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹𝗹𝘆 𝗔𝗻𝗮𝗹𝘆𝘇𝗲

We have a word critical but never means to criticize anything. Critically means you have to talk about the positive and negative aspect of the question.

𝟳. 𝗖𝗼𝗺𝗽𝗮𝗿𝗲

Compare means you are comparing one thing with another. For that, you have to draw a line of similarities and dissimilarities. For example, in question, they asked that compare Classicism and Romanticism. You have to compare their similarities and dissimilarities in the proper format.

𝟴. 𝗖𝗼𝗺𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗼𝗿 𝗢𝗽𝗶𝗻𝗶𝗼𝗻

These word like comment or opinion. Means what is your opinion? What are your views? They are completely asking you. They are asking what your opinion is. Then in answer, you use the word ‘I’, ‘According to me’.

*𝐁𝐄𝐒𝐓 𝐎𝐅 𝐋𝐔𝐂𝐊*

NOTIFICATION of 20% Discount in School Fees. This settles it. Do not pay the fee if you do not have a Revised Fee Bill. Pay the fee right away if you have the Revised Fee Bill. #StayHomeSavesLives

Gulliver's Travel As a Symbolical Work

Gulliver's Travel As a Symbolical Work.. 

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) was an author, journalist, and political activist. He is best known for his satirical novel Gulliver's Travel and satirical essay on the Irish famine, "A Modest Proposal." 'Gulliver's Travels' is a book of fantasy, satire and political allegory, and it is much liked in all ages. He wrote Gulliver's Travels in 1725, and it was published in 1726. The book got a great success throughout the British Empire and earned the titles of writer and commentator of great quality and reputation for the author. In this book, the travel of Gulliver, a surgeon on a merchant ship, is made to four imaginary countries. So, the book is divided into four parts. His first travel is to Lilliput whose inhabitants are about six inches tall. His second visit is to Brobdingnag, the country of the giants. His third visit is to the Islands of Laputa and Legedo, inhabited by philosophers and scientists, keeping love for music and mathematics. His last visit is to the land of the Honyhnhnms and Yahoos. They are rational and civilized horses, and the yahoos are unreasonable and bestial human beings, completely dirty.

Before discussing the symbols of his work, 'The Gulliver's Travel', we should know something about the literary term 'symbol'. The word' Symbol' is derived from Late Latin word 'Symbolum' means token, sign or emblem. It is, indeed, the ornament of literature. The author uses it to expose all the hidden things or the philosophy of work honestly to the readers, as they may not face to any difficulties to be understood. If such thing happened, the work would not be interesting and helpful for representing the age. It is evident that Jonathan Swift has used symbols to convey his ideas to the readers by making it easier with the help of it. Keeping in view all things, we can say that a symbol is something that stands for something else. In Gulliver's Travels, everything stands for something else because it is written for the purpose of criticizing contemporary philosophies and customs. Nearly every person in this book stands either for a historical figure or for an idea.

Let's survey the symbols used in his work, The Gulliver's Travel'.

In the first book, Swift narrates Gulliver's visit to Lilliputians, the six- inch inhabitants. They represent the symbol of extreme pride of mankind. The author represents the race ironically. He finds that they are small creatures with small minds, but they are the stock of backbiting and conspiracy; despite it, they consider themselves grand. Gulliver comes under the spell of their vain-glory and is made credulous by their threats of punishment, although the race has no real physical power over him. Gulliver learns more about Lilliputians' culture and the great difference in size between him and the race. It is explicit satire of British government. Gulliver finds Lilliputian government officials are chosen by their skill at rope dancing which is recognized arbitrary and ridiculous. It symbolizes England's system of political appointment that is arbitrary. The difference in their sizes symbolizes the importance of physical power. Gulliver can crush the Lilliputians by walking carelessly, but they don't realize their own insignificance that symbolizes their small-mindedness. They keep Gulliver tied up, believing that they can control him. Swift symbolizes it humanity's hollow claim to power and significance.

Swift is very careful in case of his satire and using symbols. The articles signed by Gulliver for gaining his freedom are in formal and self- important language symbolizes meaningless and self- contradictory piece of paper, because Gulliver is the symbol of great strength and power. He can violate all bonds for his own safety. The history of the conflict between Lilliput and Blefuscu is ridiculous. The High-Heels and the Low-Heels symbolize the Whigs and Tories of English politics. Lilliput and Blefuscu symbolize England and France. The violent conflict between Big Endians and Little Endians symbolizes the Protestant Reformation and the centuries of warfare between Catholics and Protestants. So, European history is as a series of brutal wars over meaningless and arbitrary disagreements. The conflict' how a person chooses to crack an egg' is a symbol of silliness and triviality. It is ridiculous and unreasonable can be concluded that there is no right or wrong way to worship. Swift suggests that the Christian Bible can be interpreted in more than one way. It is ridiculous for people to fight over how to interpret it when one is uncertain that one's interpretation is right and others are wrong.

The Lilliputian Emperor is the symbol of tyranny, cruelty and corruption, and he is obsessed with ceremony showing a changeless symbol of bad government. It is also a biting satire on George I, the King of England (from 1714 to 1727), during much of Swift's career. He has no admiration for the king. The Lilliputian empress stands for Queen Anne, who blocked Swift's advancement in the Church of England, having taken offense at some of his earlier satires. Gulliver's urination on her quarter represents Swift's work 'A Tale of a Tub'. The empress's disgust at Gulliver's urination is similar to Queen Anne's criticism of Swift's work and her efforts to make his prospects limited in the Church of England. Actually, his urination symbolizes his ability to control the Lilliputians. It illustrates the importance of physical power. Gulliver disobeys the emperor's order to destroy the fleet of Blefuscu signs the feelings of his responsibility toward all beings. Gulliver finds himself in a position to change the Lilliputians society for ever. There is a reference of army between Lilliput and Blefuscu symbolizes their patriotic glories with such proudly marching of armies. The Lilliputian emperor's request to Gulliver to serve as a kind of makeshift Arch of Triumph for the troops to pass is a pathetic reminder that their grand parade is supremely silly. The war with Blefuscu is the symbol of absurdity that comes out from wounded vanity. Hence the Lilliputians symbolize lost human pride and it indicates Gulliver's inability to diagnose it correctly.

In book II (Part II), Jonathan Swift narrates Gulliver's visit to giants' island. Here his walking is not symbol of danger for the Borbdingnagians as it was in his visit to Lilliput because the situation is in reverse. Borbdingnagians represent English ways. After a short period as a working freak, Gulliver is rescued by the king and the queen, and he lives a life of considerable comfort at court. He spends much of his time learning the language and talking with the king about life in England. The king emerges as a fair, merciful ruler, very sympathetic and humane man. The Borbdingnagians symbolize the private, personal and physical side of human beings, when examined up close. In Lilliputians, Gulliver symbolized god-like power, but here he is the symbol of slave and puppet to perform various tricks for paying spectators. The Borbdingnagians do not symbolize negative human characteristics. The behaviour of Borbdingnagians is different and seems to be more civilized than Gulliver. The good will of the queen toward Gulliver and common sense views are found. His enslavement is virtual that symbolizes fundamental humanity of Borbdingnagians. So, it is similar to Europeans who become happy to make a quick jump when the opportunity arises. He is a golden puppet in their hands, and he is given a comfortable cradle with the protection from the rats.

In this book, we find a dwarf who is unable to gain the power that generally accompanies great physical size, but he gets distinctiveness which symbolizes the politics of those who attempt to achieve power not through physical strength but through their distinctiveness that is exactly immoral and ordinary. The ladies and their flaws symbolize imperfection as examined up through close enough scrutiny. Gulliver's microscopic view of flies and flesh symbolizes the discovery of microscope. The late seventeenth century saw the first publication of books, containing magnified images. Such microscope views knew levels of intricacy and fault. In his eyes, the tiny size of Europeans is matched by their moral weakness. Gulliver's offer of gun powder represents imperfection of the British. The king's refusal symbolizes this race more human than the other races. It means that, in this society, the vices are minimized as much as possible. Although this race has achieved a huge moral achievement, it is not yet perfect.

Gulliver's third visit is to Lupta that shows Swift's attack on science and abstract knowledge. The Laputans are the symbol of the stupidity of theoretical knowledge irrelevant to human life. During his voyage, his ship was attacked by the pirates. He spoke with them in Dutch language, but later on his exposure of heathen more merciful than Christian symbolized Swift's religious belief. In this visit, power is implemented not through physical size but through technology. The floating Island is both a formidable weapon and an allegorical image represents the symbol of the government and the people. In this visit, he narrates the Laputans' rigid devotion to abstract theory, language, architecture and geography symbolizes non-humanity. The scientists are engaged to extract sun beams from cucumber and to turn excrement back into food and to turn ice into gun powder. The architect are engaged to design way to build houses from the roof down that symbolizes impossibility and purposelessness, representing scientific society founded in 1660. Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton were all members of the Royal society. Its main task was to use the new techniques of science to improve the craft etc. The theorist ruined a country by forcing its people to follow their fresh and wholly useless methods.

Gulliver's escaping to Glubbdubdrib symbolizes Swift's attempt to challenge the standards of abstract learning. Overall, the Ancient Greeks and the Romans were understood truly virtuous, whereas European to somewhat were degenerated. Apart from it, the Struldburgs of Luggnagg symbolize human desires. They seek eternal life and primary benefits of old age. Indeed, the wisdom of the old age can be used to help humanity, but the immortal Struldburgs grow only more prejudiced and selfish. The Struldbrugs'immense sadness and the emptiness of Gulliver's desire to acquire riches symbolize Swift's condemnation of such self-absorbed goals as the state of small minds irrelevant to good society.

Jonathan Swift narrates the fourth voyage of Gulliver to Honyhnhnms, representing an ideal of rational existence. Here, man is supposed to be yahoo, and he is subjected to the animals. It represents that the animals are more civilized or a model citizen. Their society is safe from crimes, poverty, disagreement and unhappiness. They are unaware of passion, joy and ecstatic love. The Honyhnhnms appeal to reason rather than any holy writing as the criterion for proper action. They do not use force but only strong exhortation. Gulliver's entire grief suggests that they made an impact on him greater than that of any other society he has visited.

Indeed, it is a bitter criticism on human beings. Jonathan Swift chose mankind in all three visits, but here he chose animals. Indeed, the Honyhnhnms represent man's wrong and ostentatious arrogance in the power of reason. Gulliver's making canoe by stitching to gather the skins of yahoos for escaping from the island represents his swift cynicism for mankind. If we, further, discuss it, it is the main weapon of the cynic or satirist to improve the mankind because every satirist is a reformer by heart.

Indeed, it is the view of his book in nut shell. His work needs more attention and more time. It hides a great treasure of the relevant age. It is acknowledged that his criticism is swift and hard, but he has not used to exploit the human beings but to correct them by picking out their follies.

Twentieth-century novels and other prose

Twentieth-century novels and other prose

The long reign of Queen Victoria ended in 1901. There was a sweeping social reform and unprecedented progress. The reawakening of a social conscience was found its expression in the literature produced during this period.

Rudyard Kipling was born in Bombay but soon moved to Lahore. He worked as a news reporter in Lahore. Kipling was a prolific and versatile writer. His insistent proclamation of the superiority of the white races, his support for colonization, his belief in the progress and the value of the machine etc. found an echo on the hearts of many of his readers. His best-known prose works include Kim, Life’s Handicap, Debits and Credits, and Rewards and Fairies. He is now chiefly remembered for his greatest work, The Jungle Book.

E.M Forster wrote five novels in his life time. Where Angels Fear to Tread has well-drawn characters. Other novels are The Longest Journey, A Room with a View, Howards End, and A Passage to India. A Passage to India is unequal in English in its presentation of the complex problems which were to be found in the relationship between English and native people in India. E.M Forster portrayed the Indian scene in all its magic and all its wretchedness.

H.G Wells began his career as a journalist. He started his scientific romances with the publication of The Time Machine. The Invisible Man, The War of the Worlds, The First Men in the Moon and The Food of the Gods are some of his important science romances. Ann Veronica, Kipps and The History of Mr Polly are numbered among his sociological novels.

D.H Lawrence was a striking figure in the twentieth century literary world. He produced over forty volumes of fiction during his period. The White Peacock is his earliest novel. The largely autobiographical and extremely powerful novel was Sons and Lovers. It studies with great insight the relationship between a son and mother. By many, it is considered the best of all his works. Then came The Rainbow, suppressed as obscene, which treats again the conflict between man and woman. Women in Love is another important work. Lady Chatterley’s Lover is a novel in which sexual experience is handled with a wealth of physical detail and uninhibited language.  Lawrence also excelled both as a poet and short story writer.

James Joyce is a serious novelist, whose concern is chiefly with human relationships- man in relation to himself, to society, and to the whole race. He was born in Dublin, Ireland. His first work, Dubliners, is followed by a largely autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. It is an intense account of a developing writer. The protagonist of the story, Stephen Dedalus is James Joyce himself. The character Stephen Dedalus appears again in his highly complex novel, Ulysses published in 1922. Joyce’s mastery of language, his integrity, brilliance, and power is noticeable in his novel titled Finnefan’s Wake.

Virginia Woolf famed both as a literary critic and novelist. Her first novel, The Voyage Out is told in the conventional narrative manner. A deeper study of characters can be found in her later works such as Night and Day, Jacob’s Room, To the Lighthouse, Mrs. Dalloway and Orlando. In addition to her novels, Virginia Woolf wrote a number of essays on cultural subjects. Woolf rejected the conventional concepts of novel. She replaced emphasis on incident, external description, and straight forward narration by using the technique “Stream of Consciousness”. James Joyce and Virginia Woolf popularized this writing technique.

George Orwell became a figure of outstanding importance because of Animal Farm. It is a political allegory on the degeneration of communist ideals into dictatorship. Utterly different was Nineteen Eighty-Four on the surveillance of state over its citizen. Burmese Days and The Road to Wigan Pier are other works.

William Golding deals with man’s instinct to destroy what is good, whether it is material or spiritual.  His best known novel is Lord of the Flies. The Scorpion God, The Inheritors and Free Fall are other notable works.

Somerset Maugham was a realist who sketched the cosmopolitan life through his characters. The Moon and Sixpence, Mrs. Craddock and The Painted Veil are some of his novels. His best novel is Of Human Bondage. It is a study in frustration, which had a strong autobiographical element.

Kingsly Amis’s Lucky Jim, Take a Girl like You, One Fat Englishman, and Girl are notable works in the twentieth century.

The Nightingale and the RoseCRITICAL EVALUATION

“The Nightingale and the Rose

CRITICAL EVALUATION

🌷🌷🌷💝💝💝💝🌷🌷🌷🌷

Abstract: Wilde’s parodic fairy tale The Nightingale and the Rose is often considered a critical enigma due to its artistic ambiguity. The teller himself has restricted his tale to ‘childlikepeople between eighteen and eighty’. The target population of this study consists of fifteen year old students who are embarking on the path of appreciating literature in Sri Lanka and the tale is contained in their anthology. It is a rich artifact due to its dexterity of plot, multiple themes, dramatics and the powerful poetics in the discourse. Analyzing the short story, which has intricate motifs woven into its fabric, this study depicts it as an aesthetic experiment with an inherent transformative power. Yet pedagogic caution is a requisite as Wilde himself has stated that the tale has ‘many secrets, many meanings and many answers’ embedded in it. Judicious analysis of Wilde’s tale will make the young adults explore some age relevant secrets, meanings and answers while discovering the beauty of his art.

Targeted Generation as Young Students:

Students are novices to the art of Appreciation of English Literary Texts which is the title of their anthology. Wilde though he classifies The Nightingale and the Rose as a fairy tale states that is not for children, but for ‘childlike people from eighteen to eighty. Thus this population is still short of three years to be eligible. But they are young adults and will abhor the stratification: children.  They are ‘childlike people’ who are at the threshold of the transient period of adolescence when a child develops into an adult. Should The Nightingale and the Rose gain entry to their anthology?

Answering in the affirmative this study argues that the short story has a multitude of merits which makes it excellent raw material for embarking on the process of appreciation of the genre: short story. The aptness for the age group lies in the tightness of the plot, the powerful symbolism, vivid imagery, the economy and the beauty of language, the thematic value and the entailed social criticism. It is a perfect specimen for detecting the qualities of a good short story.

The reality is that the modern teenage girl would hate to sit ‘winding blue silk on a reel’. There is no need as they buy their clothes and other paraphernalia off the rack. Such leisurely activity adds a ‘once upon a time’ touch to The Nightingale and the Rose in the context of the modern young reader, 127 years after its publication. But the symbolism transcends time. Girls still engage in, at this age of equal gender rights, trivial feminine activities which boys would not dream of doing. The majority of them are feminine feminists.

Analyzing other characteristics of the daughter of the Professor sharpen their world view. They would agree that guys, or even girls if you are not interested in them should be told off, not encouraged. But the callousness of the way the girl did it and the reasons spelt out and rubbed in would not receive approval of the majority. True appreciation of the short story will create awareness of the materialism, class consciousness and false values based on appearances in the daughter of the Professor. Evidence for all these human weaknesses exists around them but such awareness creation would lead to self-questioning: am I going to be tainted by such negative values? They learn to not only identify but also critically evaluate prevailing attitudes and values in the contemporary society.

You will find many a young boy smugly carrying one for his lady love. But a red rose does not necessarily beget love. These youthful readers, whether male or female, are taught the consequences of unrequited love: disillusionment and frustration. The Student mishandling rejection will make them probe alternate ways where they need not turn into a recluse. They will also estimate that discarding Love as a silly thing after rejection is, in their own terminology, ‘sour grapes’. Most importantly they will learn to discern between true love and infatuation.

The manner in which the Student resolves to shut himself up with dusty tomes of knowledge might give rise to many a parallel. It reflects a very modern affliction the young generation suffers from: reclusiveness. In search of emotional and physical isolation it might not be dusty books they seek. Instead alienating themselves from the problems of the world outside can occur in the form of addiction to and seeking refuge in various forms of building barriers between you, your family and the world outside. Is resorting to reclusiveness on the rebound a solution? Let them find answers.

Furthermore the most enthralling aspect of the short story is it’s the open ended finale. This age group will grapple with the above and a multitude of other questions. Did the Nightingale sacrifice its life in vain? Should she have let her heart rule over her head? Is love better than life, as the Nightingale believed? Thus as evidenced above for the student who is taking the first steps towards the appreciation of the genre of short story Wilde’s The Nightingale and the Rose is a unique experience.

de Medeiros and Gomes (2015)[5] state that until 1860, the fairy tales published in Britain (for example collections by Hans Andersen, and brothers Grimm) had a clear didactic function to preach the values and ideals of Victorian society, which included earnestness, virtue, hard work, propriety, and restraint. Many scholars consider that The Nightingale and the Rosehas a dissident function and posit that it falls within the genre of parodic fairy tales. Zipes (2007) [9]identifies one distinctive quality which makes a literary work acquire the nuances of a fairy tale. In a fairy tale,

The characters, settings, and motifs are combined and varied according to specific functions to induce wonder.

Moreover Tolkien (1983, p. 113) [10] states that the characters in a fairy tale need not be restricted to ‘fairies or elves’. The fairy tale quality is often generated with talking animals and plants, and even ‘ourselves, mortal men, when we are enchanted’ (ibid). In sum the sense of wonder and enchantment woven into a short story and the inclusion of magical talking plants and animals add a fairy tale quality to it distinguishing it from other modern short literary genres.

The Nightingale and the Rose may not have ‘fairies or elves’ but within the setting of the garden talking animals and plantsbewitch, especially, the young reader. Equally enthralling is the creation of the rose which is sheer magic. Thus Wilde’s craft adds a fascination which is generally created within the genre of fairy tales. But the magic has a short life within the story. The semantics in the verbal exchanges of the animals and plantsand their character traits lift them above mundane personifications. They have many human weaknesses. This turns the garden to a thing unrelated to the canon of fairy tales.

The Lizard is a cynic, the Daisy has cultivated mannerisms, and theOak-tree has feelings as it ‘was very fond of the little Nightingale’ but though it understood the gravity of the Nightingale’s decision it passively accepts it and hastily bids a farewell:  'I shall feel very lonely when you are gone.' Wilde himself has declared that there is the ‘other half of the garden’ where rather than enchantment the reader will find ‘suffering and sorrow’ (Wilde 2005: 349)[11]. Thus The Nightingale and the Rose is not the archetypal fairy tale. It is raised to a higher form of art through the use of parody.

Parody can be defined as deliberately copying a style of something to create amusement through ridicule. Parody need not be limited to ridicule. According to Hutcheon (2000: 54), [12] ‘parody can use irony easily and naturally as a preferred, even privileged, rhetorical mechanism’. Wilde uses the genre of fairy tale but he converts his storyline into a parody not only by the removal of enchantment from the garden but also subverting the happy ending habitually associated with fairy tales.

Agreement comes from de Medeiros and Gomes(2015: 30) [13] who state that,

The lack of a happy ending in the short story both work to promote Wilde’s parodic intent towards the fairy-tale tradition and to strengthen the social criticism towards a materialistic and utilitarian society.

Thus discarding ridicule Wilde’s narrative style prefers the rhetorical mechanism of irony and flavours it with wit. He imitates the fairy-tale tradition but uses ironic inversion flouting its norms. Irony is generated through the description of youthful life in Victorian England. It is denoted as based on false values. Even the pursuit of higher knowledge is parodied by Wilde. Utilitarian values win over genuine emotions. Wilde makes the Nightingale possess the higher human qualities: compassion, true love and sacrifice claiming that she is the only one worthy of Romance.

Additionally ironic inversion of the fairy-tale tradition of a handsome prince and beautiful princess enhance the parodic excellence in Wilde. The character of the daughter of the Professor is devoid of physical description. Unlike the sweet, docile princesses in fairy-tales she is sharp tongued, cold and calculating. The macho prince is reduced to a weeping imbecile. Wilde also seems to explore the stereotypical gender roles in his society through the Student and the girl. Her father is a learned professor and the only other male in the narrative, his student is a budding scholar of Philosophy and Metaphysics. She is given the conventional tasks of winding thread, dancing ‘so lightly that her feet will not touch the floor’, and thriving among admiring courtiers. Thus unlike in traditional fairy-tales Education is brought in as a theme by Wilde but it is parodied as it brings out the gender bias and forecasts a pessimistic outcome of knowledge.

Similarly the target population is fortunate to receive a balanced education where one aesthetic subject is compulsory. This will caution the learners against completely assenting to Wilde’s parody of education which is suited to a society of bygone times.

Furthermore a clear subversion of the fairy tale genre is yet again evidenced in the radical outcome of the short story. According to Pihlström (2014: 43)[14],

When children are gradually initiated into moral thinking- for example- through traditional fairy tales- they usually learn that the good will eventually be rewarded and the bad ‘will get what they deserve’. The protagonist in a fairy tale typically gets a reward for a morally heroic action, while the villains are punished or destroyed.

However according to Bushakevitz (2009: 103) [15]Wilde’s tale does not subscribe to the above traditional moral thinking introduced by fairy tales.

In The Nightingale and the Rose, good is not rewarded nor is evil punished. The fact that the professor’s daughter does not accept the student’s offer of the rose cannot be viewed as a punishment for the student, since his reaction to the rejection demonstrates that his ‘love’ of the girl was insignificant even to him. It would have been a reward for the nightingale had the girl accepted the rose, but this does not happen.

In sum through these subversions Wilde not only parodies the genre of classical fairy tale but uses it as a vehicle for ‘his elegant style and keen wit to give full expression both to his philosophy of art and his critique of English high society’ (Zipes, 2007, p. 167) [16]. Additionally, through the deft use of his craftsmanship Wilde has been able to lift the prose away from the boundaries of English society in the Victorian era as much of the social satire can be extended to many a society in the contemporary society.

The Plot Development

The fine art of plot development in a short story where language should be economical yet retain its beauty reaches its perfection in The Nightingale and the Rose.

Exposition

At the beginning of the exposition using a flashback the author introduces the main conflict. The Student is attracted to his professor’s daughter and she has asked for a red rose to dance with him. It is not a demand which can be fulfilled as the Student says ‘in my entire garden there is no red rose’. The inability to find a rose makes his beautiful eyes’ fill with tears and decide that his life is ‘wretched’. Thus the conflict is introduced with great economy of language.

2.3 Rising Action

Across each stage of the Rising Action the story moves swiftly while attaining a magical quality.

2.3.1 Entry of the Nightingale and his empathy with the Student

The Nightingale hears the Student weeping and judges him to be genuinely in love and states ‘Here at last is a true lover’. He listens to the lamentation of the Student. A flash forward is used in this instance to create a powerful juxtaposed imagery of the ballroom scene through the eyes of the Student which given in Table 1 below.

Student’s predicament in a flash forward

If I have a red rose

‘I shall hold her in my arms, and she will lean her head upon my shoulder, and her hand will be clasped in mine.’

If I do not have a red rose

‘I shall sit lonely, and she will pass me by. She will have no heed of me, and my heart will break’.

Based on the outward demonstration of grief by the Student the Nightingale concludes, 'Here indeed is the true lover'.Another flash forward where the Student’s words vividly describe the girl and visualize his plight at the ball is juxtapoed in Table II below.

At the ball

The girl at the ball

‘My love will dance to the sound of the harp and the violin. She will dance so lightly that her feet will not touch the floor, and the courtiers in their gay dresses will throng round her.’

The Student’s plight

‘But with me she will not dance, for I have no red rose to give her'.

The dramatic quality of the narrative intensifies as the Nightingale watches the Student flinging ‘himself down on the grass’, buries ‘his face in his hands’ and weeps.

2.3.2 Other animals in the garden

During the next stage of rising action the story reaches its pinnacle in parodic fairy tale quality. Each animal is personified and given specific human qualities.

The Daisy is demure, ladylike and ‘whispers’ in a ‘soft, low voice’.

The opposite is found in the inquisitive Butterfly who is engaged in the useless activity of ‘fluttering about after a sunbeam’. Here Wilde seems to be creating associations with a hyperactive social butterfly who is flitting around at a social gathering.

They are scornful about the reason for the Student’s weeping and together they express their disdain by stating: 'how very ridiculous!’

The Lizard who runs ‘with his tail in the air’ is ‘a cynic’ and he ‘laughed outright’ demonstrating no qualms about flouting social etiquette.

Though the talking animals add to the fairy tale quality of the short story the technique used by Wilde makes it a social gathering of personifications, each decked with a stereotypical human weakness.

2.3.3 The Nightingale and the red rose tree

Not discouraged by her encounter with the animals in the garden the Nightingale decides to help the Student and approaches the rose trees in the garden. Finally she finds a red rose tree. But it says that the harsh winter ‘has chilled my veins, and the frost has nipped my buds, and the storm has broken my branches’.

When asked for a method of getting a red rose the tree states 'but it is so terrible that I dare not tell it to you.' Here a very human trait is hinted at by the author. It is human nature to pretentiously prewarn a destructive action especially if you are going to benefit out of it. It clears one’s conscience. The rose tree knows that she ‘shall have no roses at all this year' thus this is a good opportunity to fulfil its desire to bloom. The moment the Nightingale says 'Tell it to me' the veneer of concern is shed making it a false social requirement. The tree does not need much persuasion and unemotionally gives step by step details of the dreadful way a red rose could be created. The change of tone in diction of the rose tree moves from dissuasion to authoritative.

• 'You must build it out of music by moonlight, and stain it with your own heart's-blood.

• You must sing to me with your breast against a thorn. All night long you mustsing to me by moonlight.

• All night long you must sing to me, and the thorn must pierce your heart, and your life-blood must flow into my veins, and become mine.'

The diction of the rose tree is full of imperatives; a cold blooded description of a process. Here too the personification is not restricted to the ability to talk. The insistent must repeated at each step in the lines above shows an eagerness for very detail in the process to be perfected. No camouflaging of the suffering involved is indicated throughout and at the climax of the pain ‘your life-blood must flow into my veins, and become mine’ is clearly stated by the rose tree.

Thus the Nightingale is made fully aware of the severity of pain and the length of suffering. But she decides to sacrifice her life. Then during the very act of the sacrifice the increasing eagerness and the selfishness of the rose tree are strongly conveyed by the repetition of the line below.

'Press closer, little Nightingale,' cried the Tree, 'or the day will come before the rose is finished.'

Under the façade of helping the Nightingale the rose tree keeps spurring her on to fulfil the deed and the finale is reached when the rose tree exclaims joyously,

'Look, look!’ ..... 'The rose is finished now'

Devoid of any regret on the destruction of the life of the Nightingale the rose tree victoriously announces to the world the attainment of her goal. This is a very human weakness: triumphant self-declarations which reek of personal glorification with no recognition given to the weighty contribution made by others. Thus the personified rose tree is yet again a vehicle to make the reader become conscious of human weaknesses.

Climax

The climax of the story is reached when the Nightingale sacrifices herself. The gradual death and the birth of the red rose are vividly described. The increasing pain of the Nightingale keeps time with the increased tempo of her song which ironically is a celebration of eternal love as depicted in the lines below.

‘Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb’.